Paul Marmet
This paper demonstrates how quantum mechanics solves the problem previously attributed to relativity, when atoms acquire gravitational energy. When we apply the principle of mass-energy conservation to an atom gaining potential energy, the electron mass increases. Then, using the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, we show that the Bohr radius decreases so that the physical macroscopic length of bodies also decreases. Classical physics with quantum mechanics alone lead to predictions, which are compatible with all the experimental observations usually attributed to relativity. It has been shown previously how the increase of kinetic energy changes the atomic structure, due to the change of electron mass. We explain here the corresponding phenomenon, when the increase of electron mass is due to gravitational energy. Such an increase of potential energy leads to an increase of frequency of emission of atoms in agreement with Pound and Rebka experiment. This paper also explains the combined physical phenomena, taking place when an atom increases its kinetic energy at the same time as an increase of potential energy. We see then, how the physical length of matter changes and how the natural rate of clocks, change in such a way that it explains naturally the advance of the perihelion of Mercury. Furthermore, we show how the increase of potential energy leads to a different change of Bohr radius, than when an increase of kinetic energy is involved. This dissimilarity is due to the difference of momentum transfer during the interaction of kinetic and potential energy. This is explained naturally, without any need of Einstein's theory of relativity. Conventional logic and realistic physics are now sufficient to explain all these phenomena in nature. The esoteric hypothesis of space and time distortion is useless. Instead, using realism, we can understand how the physical change of length of bodies and clock rates, take place in a gravitational field.
1-- Introduction.
There exists no physical rationalization explaining why and how matter can
dilate or contract as claimed in relativity. That physics theory is
impenetrable, because it is not compatible with the existence of an
absolute physical reality, independent of the observer. Einstein's
theory has never been able to provide a logical description of the
physical meaning of relativity. Unfortunately, just as during the
Middle Ages, most scientists claim that nature is not compatible with
conventional logic. Magic is required in the interpretation of
Einstein's relativity.
In this paper, the
phenomenon of length contraction or dilation of matter and the change of
clock rate are explained logically without any of Einstein's relativity
hypotheses (1). We have seen in a
previous paper (2-4) how a simple
classical mechanism can explain the physical length contraction and
dilation of matter, when the mass of the proton and of the electron inside
the atom increases due to the absorption of kinetic energy. As
expected, a comparable increase of electron and proton masses occurs, due
to the addition of gravitational potential energy. Due to the
variation of potential energy and the application of the principle of
mass-energy conservation, we show how the Bohr radius increases and
decreases, so that the physical size of matter changes. Dilation of
matter is not a simple mathematical transformation: it is a physical
reality. Also, matter shrinks back to its original length when the
atom returns to the original potential energy as explained previously
(2,3).
Here, we show with full details, how matter is dilated and contracted, and
how clocks run at a different rate due to the change of gravitational
potential energy. Following a change of quantum structure, we can
see how that change of gravitational potential energy is responsible for
the change of physical size of the atom. Contrary to most papers in
modern physics, we always refer to a realistic physical model. In
contrast to Einstein's relativity, we show that all the phenomena
previously claimed to belong to relativity, can now be described using
models of the kind used by Newton, Coulomb and de Broglie. The
importance of the de Broglie wavelength relationship is vital. The
reader must be able to conceive first that, due to the potential energy of
atoms, the electron mass increases. Furthermore, there is a change
of size of the "reference units" in different frames, which is a direct
consequence of the principle of mass-energy
conservation.
It is also an
experimental fact that when an electric charge (i. e. an electron) is
accelerated to high velocity, its mass increases, but its electric charge
remains constant. This is verified experimentally when an electron
is accelerated to velocities close to the velocity of light, and then
deflected in a magnetic field. Experimental data show clearly that,
the electron charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) changes with velocity in such a
way (just as expected), that the electron mass increases as a function of
velocity, while the electric charge remains constant at any
velocity. This is a well-verified experimental fact.
Therefore, just as in the case of kinetic energy, in a gravitational
potential, the electron mass increases with potential energy and the
electric charge remains constant.
We
recall that an accelerating electric charge generates electromagnetic
radiation. Consequently, a quantum transition inside a particle
always emits a quantized amount of energy. In some cases, that flow
of electromagnetic radiation can be continuous, but its detection is
quantized due to the quantum states of atoms and molecules in the
detector.
In this paper, we
consider separately the influence of the gravitational potential on atoms,
assuming momentarily that the kinetic energy is maintained at zero.
The problem of kinetic energy has been calculated in a previous paper
(5) and does not need to be reconsidered
here. The effects of kinetic and potential energy on atoms are
considered independently before their physical effect are finally combined
in the last section of this paper. Let us calculate first how the
atomic structure of the atoms changes as a function of the gravitational
potential in which they are immerged.
2-- Mass-Energy Conservation in Gravitational
Potential.
We have seen previously
(2, 3) that when a body is moved between
different altitudes in a gravitational field, its mass must change in
order to be compatible with the principle of mass-energy
conservation. Let us recall the following experiment. We
consider that an individual hydrogen atom is located at its initial
distance yo from a gravitational source.
This is illustrated on Figure 1.
Figure 1
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3 --- Inertial versus Gravitational
Acceleration.
“Acceleration” is
defined as the “change of velocity” as a function of time. In
agreement with Newton’s law, when a free body is submitted to a force, its
velocity is changing. No acceleration can be claimed without a
physical change of velocity. Acceleration can be produced by
different kinds of forces. We have the “inertial acceleration” when
the acceleration (i.e. the change of velocity) is due to a mechanical
force. The “gravitational acceleration” is due to the interaction of
matter with the force of gravity. The expression “gravitational
acceleration” is often erroneously used to describe the “force” due to
gravity. That force of gravity is what constitutes the weight of a
stationary mass. In that case, there is no acceleration (no change
of velocity), since the mass cannot move freely. To be authentic, a
change of velocity must be observable from any other remote frames, which
are not submitted to the particular force being studied. Any kind of
acceleration, which is always a simple change of velocity, is a dynamic
phenomenon that can always be sensed by an observer located in a frame
outside the frame being accelerated. However, depending on whether
we have inertial or gravitational acceleration, the mass being accelerated
will be influenced differently.
Inertial acceleration is a change of velocity due to a localized force,
which is applied only on a point or on a surface, which constitute a
pressure on an accelerated body. That point or that surface of
pressure transmits that localized force to all other particles inside the
accelerated body. That pressure due to the accelerating force
propagates through the rest of the mass, owing to the intermolecular force
between atoms.
Gravitational
acceleration is also a change of velocity, due to a non-pin-point
gravitational field distributed all over the space where the accelerated
mass is. This accelerating force is a field, which acts
simultaneously on all individual particles forming the accelerated mass.
Therefore, all particles inside the frame are accelerated independently
without having to involve any interaction between atoms.
Consequently, contrary to an inertial acceleration, a gravitational
acceleration does not produce any stress inside the accelerated
body. That last observation is the key solution that allows us to
measure the difference between the inertial acceleration and the
gravitational acceleration.
We
can see that the “gravitational acceleration” is easily distinguishable
from the “inertial acceleration”. For example, an observer standing
on the surface of the Earth feels the gravitational force but there is no
change of velocity (no acceleration). However, if the observer is
falling freely from the roof of a building, he does then accelerate, but
then he does not feel any internal force during the acceleration. By
definition, both inertial acceleration and gravitational acceleration do
correspond to a physical change of velocity.
One
must conclude that: The essential characteristics of “inertial
acceleration” imply two simultaneous conditions. The inertial
acceleration
(1) produces a
positive effect on an accelerometer attached to the accelerated body,
and
(2) this inertial
acceleration produces a change of velocity which ought to be observable
with respect to any non accelerated frame (i.e. which is independent of
that accelerated body).
Inertial acceleration
can be illustrated with an active rocket accelerating in space. We
know that in that case, all external observers can measure the change of
velocity due to the burning fuel inside the rocket. Furthermore, an
accelerometer attached to the rocket will also record a positive
acceleration.
The characteristics of
acceleration due to gravity are different. When a mass falls in a
gravitational field, that free mass also changes its velocity, which is
observable with respect to any non-accelerated frame (i.e. which is
independent of that accelerated body). However, contrary to
the inertial acceleration, during the accelerated fall in the
gravitational field, no effect appears on an accelerometer attached to the
accelerated body.
An accelerometer
attached to the mass will show a positive reading (a force) only when the
mass remains stationary, as seen from all other external frames not
submitted to that gravitational force. However, there exists then no
change of velocity (no acceleration). This result can be confirmed
by all observers located in frames away from that gravitational
field. Therefore, there is a fundamental physical difference between
an inertial acceleration and a gravitational
acceleration.
That difference is
easily measurable without ambiguity. Any serious experimenter can
understand the dissimilarity between the two phenomena and measure
independently the inertial and the gravitational force. Of course,
we assume that the observer does not handicap himself by ignoring
voluntarily important data that can be gathered outside his own
frame. It is not acceptable to tell the observer that he does not
have the permission to look outside the system. In physics, all
possible information must be eagerly looked for, appreciated and
used. Physics is not a game and all possible data must willingly be
explored. Consequently, any principle claiming that the
gravitational and inertial acceleration are indistinguishable is therefore
incorrect. The Einstein's equivalence principle between inertial and
gravitational acceleration is a flight of the imagination. Everybody knows
how to distinguish these fundamental phenomena except when we formulate
our own arbitrary restrictions on measurements.
4 --- Fundamental Principles.
In order to be able to
calculate the internal structure of atoms located (at rest) in various
gravitational potentials, we need to consider four fundamental principles
in physics. These principles must always be compatible, using the
proper units that exist in the appropriate frame. We apply Newton
mechanics, Coulomb law of electrical attraction between charges, and the
fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. It is well known that
for a simple atom, as the atomic hydrogen, there are simple fundamental
rules, which are the foundation of the complicated systems of equations of
quantum mechanics. Furthermore, it is important to recall that all
the fundamental equations of physics must be satisfied
simultaneously. We consider that the electron, which is inside the
atom and orbiting around the nucleus at velocity vo, behaves in about a similar way as in the Bohr model of the
atom. We know, that in fact the electron in the ground state (1s) is
actually oscillating back and forth across the nucleus since the orbital
angular momentum (the
parameter) is zero, which gives a configuration
2S(1/2) for the atom. However, since
the de Broglie equation is also valid in all orbits, for simplicity we
consider here that the orbit of the electron cloud is circular,
corresponding to 2p, 3d, 4f . . . electrons.
The
first principle P1 is the Newton principle of action “equal to
reaction”. The Newton centrifugal force of the orbiting electron is
equal to the Coulomb attracting force between the electron cloud and the
proton. This is a well-known condition, which reflects the first
principle P1 in atoms illustrated here using atomic hydrogen. We
have:
12We must realize that the equations of mechanics, as given in equations 11 and 12 are valid only, when we use the number of units, as measured by an observer using the units existing in the frame where the phenomenon takes place. However, when we apply the principle of mass-energy conservation between frames, it is absolutely necessary to take into account both the number of units and also the size of the units, which change between frames. This is a consequence of an absolute physical reality of matter, which is independent of the observer. This will be discussed in more detail in section 6 below.
In this paper, we consider atoms, which are stationary in frames located at different gravitational potentials. However, it is obvious that the electron orbiting that stationary nucleus cannot be stationary. Therefore, even if we wish to deal only with stationary atoms, the fundamental consequences related to the velocity of the orbiting electron cannot be totally ignored without further considerations. In that case, there are two reasons for which there is a change of electron mass. There is a change of electron mass, due to the change of energy in its orbit around the nucleus (quantum levels), but also the change of electron mass due to the change of velocity of the whole atom. We know that for hydrogen, the maximum amount of internal energy that can be involved between the bound electron and the proton is 13.6 eV. However, in the case of gravitational energy, the change of electron and proton mass considered here is without limit and can reach millions of eV in the gravitational field near the surface of extremely massive degenerated stars. Consequently, the change of electron velocity (due to the atomic energy levels) in the atom is quite negligible with respect to the corresponding change due to the change of atom gravitational potential energy considered here. Therefore, in this paper, the smaller change of electron mass due to the electron velocity around a stationary atom is insignificant and therefore, will be neglected. We consider here only the change of electron velocity, (change of quantum states) due to the increase of gravitational potential of the atom.
We have explained (2) that the reference parameters, which are relevant to calculate the change of structure of a particle moving in a field are the ones existing in the frame where the particle is located (in the gravitational potential). When the atom moves to a different gravitational potential, its absolute mass, and length as well as the local size of the reference units become different from the ones existing in the gravitational frame. This is taken into account here.
The third fundamental principle P3 applied here is the Coulomb electrostatic force between the electron e- and the proton p+. We have:
13
and 
14This problem has also been explained previously (2), without all details. These four principles must always be satisfied simultaneously. The observer using the proper units, where the phenomenon takes place, needs to find the physical conditions (i.e. the electron velocity) so that all these principles are satisfied simultaneously.
Index
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CD-ROM
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FAQ
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Photographs
Meeting
Italy,
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Photographs
Meeting
London
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1A-
Einstein's
Theory
of
Relativity
versus
Classical
Mechanics
Preface
Contents
Chap#1
Chap#2
Chap#3
Chap#4
Chap$5
Chap#6
Chap#7
Chap#8
Chap#9
Chap#10
Chap#11
Chap#12
Appendix1
Appendix2
|||||
1-A-X
Fundamental
Nature of
Relativistic
Mass
and
Magnetic
Fields.
|||||
1B-
The
GPS
and
the
Constant
Velocity
of
Light.
|||||
1C-
A
Detailed
Classical
Description
of
the
Advance
of
the
Perihelion
of
Mercury
|||||
1D-
Relativistic
Deflection
of
Light
Near
the
Sun
Using
Radio
Signals
and
Visible
Light.
|||||
1E-
|||||
1F
|||||
1G
Anomalous
Acceleration
of
Pioneer
10
and
11
|||||
2-
Absurdities
in
Modern
Physics:
A
Solution.
Preface
Contents
Index
Chap#1
Chap#2
Chap#3
Chap#4
Chap#5
Chap#6
Chap#7
Chap#8
Appendix
|||||
3-
A
New
Non-
Doppler
Redshift
|||||
4A-
Big
Bang
Cosmology
Meets
an
Astro-
nomical
Death.
|||||
4B-
Discovery
of H2
in
Space
Explains
Dark
Matter
and
Redshift.
|||||
5-
The
Origin
of
the
3
K
Radiation.
|||||
6-
Quantum
Mechanics
and
its
Paradox:
A
Realistic
Solution
to
Mermin's
EPR
Apparatus.
|||||
7-
Enlarge-
ment
of
the
Earth's
Shadow
on
the
Moon:
An
Optical
Illusion.
|||||
8-
Redshift
of
Spectral
lines
in the
Sun's
Chromos-
phere.
|||||
9-
Non-
Doppler
Redshift
of
Some
Galactic
Objects.
|||||
10-
Stellar
Aberration
and
Einstein's
Relativity.
|||||
11-
Incompati-
bility
between
Einstein's
General
Relativity
and
the
Principle
of
Equi-
valence
|||||
12-
Cosmic
Matter and
the
Non-
expanding
Universe.
|||||
13 -
The 3
K
Microwave
Background and
Olbers'
Paradox.
|||||
14 -
The
Cosmolo-
gical
Constant
and
the
Redshift
of
Quasars.
|||||
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to:
Top this
Page
|||||
About
the
author:
Paul
Marmet |||||
Canadian
Who's
Who
Ed.
2001
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15
16
). In that case, we can see that although we have
the same number of units, the physical amount of mass is
different.
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18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
inside the atom, around the proton, becomes (1+e) times faster. We can see in the above
calculation that nature behaves in such way that the physics, taking place in
such a gravitational potential (at location y+Dy) is different from the one taking
place at potential yo. Of course, this is
due to the increase of electron mass. This is the only way to get matter
compatible with the four above fundamental principles, as we will see
below. The problem of the orbiting electron around the nucleus is similar
to the problem of Mercury around the Sun, in which there is an advance of the
perihelion, so that the Newton equations are valid only when we use the units
existing where the interaction takes place. For the same reason, inside
the atom, the electron velocity increases (1+e)
times with respect to the initial frame, just as in the case of the larger
velocity of Mercury around the Sun, which leads to the advance of the perihelion
of Mercury.
29
30
31
represents the Lyman (n=1) electron orbit
(8) when the atom is in its initial
gravitational frame yo. The
level 
represents the Balmer (n=2) term
(8) of the Rydberg series, of the same quantum
configuration, when the atom is in the same original frame
yo.
frame, the ground state of the atom is now shown
at 
and its corresponding Balmer series (n=2) is shown
at 
. Then, the size of the new Bohr radius has decreased
(1+e) times. Consequently, the size of all
matter decreases also (1+e) times. Figure
2 illustrates the physics taking place in an absolute frame, as seen by the
observer in the initial yo
frame.
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34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
units. 
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50
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