Tom Bearden on Negative Resistance
Refer to E.T. Whittaker, "On the Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics," Mathematische Annalen, Vol. 57, 1903, p. 333-355. Whittaker shows us that a "scalar" potential is not at all what they taught us in EM theory 101. If one hasn't read Whittaker 1903, one will need to do so.
As Whittaker shows, the scalar potential (actually its reaction cross section is what even Whittaker is decomposing) identically is a harmonic set of bidirectional longitudinal EM wavepairs, where each pair is a phase conjugate pair. In short, a "scalar" potential identically is a multivectorial, multiwave entity (but comprised of longitudinally polarized EM waves, and those waves come in bidirectional pairs!).
In fact, because in the phase conjugate pair one wave is "time-forward" and the other is "time-reversed", time-reversal and time-forward perturbations occur paired and simultaneously in nature's electrodynamics. This is erroneously omitted, however, in Maxwellian electrodynamics theory.
Anyway, the "scalar" potential isn't even a scalar entity. Since Whittaker 1903, the proof has been in the literature nearly a century and it has just been ignored!
Since the QM vacuum contains and is a virtual particle flux (that's one way to model it) and thus contains energy, it is (or can be modeled as) a special kind of "scalar" potential.
Every EM potential is in fact a change to the vacuum energy density. Any EM potential in a circuit is a change to the ambient vacuum potential or to some intermediate potential that is. Rigorously, any increased EM potential in a circuit is a special kind of negative resistor, since extra bidirectional, flowing EM energy from the vacuum has been added to the circuit.
However, electrodynamicists have not recognized that regauging produces a true negative resistor. Very large bidirectional energy flows (very large potentials) can be freely added to the circuit at any time. However, to use these negative resistors so that we extract usable energy from them, we have to learn how to more carefully use bidirectional potentials so that we apply them adroitly in two opposing directions simultaneously.
No textbook or professor ever calculates the potential itself, but only its reaction cross section. Consider that for awhile; it's quite rigorous. We have been and are taught to calculate only how much energy is diverged from the potential, around a little unit point static charge (assumed), and that little "swirl-around" energy is then supposed to be "the potential".
It isn't. The little swirl-around is the energy diverged from the potential. Calling that "the potential" is analogous to mistaking a tiny little whirlpool in a river as the entire river. Same error.
For more than a century the electricians have erroneously "defined" the scalar potential "at a point" as the amount of energy diverged from it around a little fixed unit point static charge at that point
The amount of energy "swirled or diverted from all those bidirectional LWs around a little unit point static charge" fixed at a point, does indeed have a scalar magnitude. For fixed conditions, there's a fixed amount of energy in the "swirl-around" at any moment. But that "magnitude of the energy in the swirl" isn't the potential; it's what's diverted from the potential.
Obviously it's a major non sequitur to mistake "the" potential for a tiny fraction of itself.
As a set of bidirectional LWs, the potential is an ensemble of mighty, rushing rivers of EM energy, with paired rivers flowing in opposite directions.
From those rushing rivers of energy comprising any nonzero "static" potential, you can collect as much energy as you wish, just by adding more intercepting/collecting charges. The equation is already known and very simple: W = (phi)q, where W is the total energy collected (diverged) from a potential of reaction cross section phi, upon intercepting charges q. Fix the phi to a constant value, then add as much q as is needed to have W reach any value you wish.
One can collect a billion watts of power from a millivolt, e.g., given enough intercepting charges q. The "magnitude" of the potential isn't fixed at any point, because the potential is a set of flows involving the entire vacuum of the universe.
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The source dipole, once made, is a true negative resistor that freely extracts observable, usable field energy from the vacuum, and pours it out through the terminals of the generator or battery. The outflowing energy moves at light speed through all space surrounding the conductors of the external circuit, and generally parallel to them.
It's a tiny bit convergent into the wires, because in the "sheath" or boundary layer of the flow right down on the surface of the conductors, that part of the flow strikes the surface charges and gets diverged into the wires to power up the electrons and the circuit. Every electrical circuit and every electrical load is and always has been powered by energy extracted directly from the vacuum by the negative resistor source dipole. That statement is fully justified in particle physics, but not electrodynamics. The electrodynamicists and leaders of the scientific community have refused to change the flawed foundations and gaps in EM theory, even though a great deal has been learned since 1867 that substantially changes the foundations assumptions used originally to construct the theory.
The energy extracted by the source dipole from the vacuum sprays out of the terminals of the battery or generator, filling all space around the external conductors.
A good illustration of this incredible energy flow is shown in Kraus, Electromagnetics, Fourth Edition. The magnitude of the energy flow extracted is so great as to boggle the imagination. In a simple little circuit, it's about 10exp13 times as much as is intercepted in that little "sheath flow" by the circuit and diverged into the circuit to power it.
Well, the enormity of that energy flow extracted from the vacuum by the source dipole is totally mystifying and embarrassing, or it was highly embarrassing back there in the 1880s.
And therein lies one of the greatest scientific faux pas of all time.
Energy flow through space was discovered independently by Heaviside and Poynting and at about the same time. Poynting only thought of, and accounted for, the feeble little component of energy flow that actually entered the circuit -- in short, the energy in that "little sheath or strip" flow right down on the surface of the conductors.
He never even imagined all that nondiverged, nonintercepted energy component missing the circuit entirely and just being wasted. But Poynting published prestigiously, while Heaviside published more obscurely, and the theory of EM energy flow was named after Poynting.
Heaviside realized the entire energy flow, including the huge nondiverged component that entirely misses the circuit -- the component that Poynting missed. Heaviside also corrected Poynting on the overall flow direction (Poynting missed it by 90 degrees). Note that Maxwell was already dead at the time.
Then the great Lorentz entered the energy flow picture, and confronted a massive problem. How was one to account for the inexplicably enormous nondiverged Heaviside energy flow that was pouring forth from those terminals? And why did the circuit catch such a feeble little Poynting fraction of the overall flow? That output is far more energy than even a host of power systems contained or were thought to output. At the time there was absolutely no conceivable way to account for the enormous magnitude of the nondiverging energy flow component.
So Lorentz hit upon a stratagem. He eliminated the problem rather than solving it. He reasoned that the nondiverged Heaviside component of the energy flow was "physically insignificant" because it was not used in the circuit and did not even enter it.
So he integrated the energy flow vector itself around a closed surface surrounding any little volume of interest. Voila! That little trick discarded that bothersome huge nondiverged Heaviside component of the energy flow (it's physically still there around every circuit, but the circuit does not catch it and the electrodynamicists just ignore it.). Lorentz's trick retained the Poynting component, and since that is the energy that enters the circuit and is collected by it, then it will be the energy that the circuit dissipates in its losses and loads.
So it will match our instrumental measurements, since we measure dissipation. I have a 1902 reference by Lorentz where he did that little integration trick, but it is in a book so he very probably did it earlier in a scientific paper which I have yet to locate.
Anyway, following Lorentz the electrodynamicists just arbitrarily threw away far more available EM energy associated with every circuit than they retained. All the electrodynamicists fell into line, and they are still in the same line after a century, marching along to Lorentz's cadence.
The neglected Heaviside energy flow is still physically there as a special negentropic organization of the vacuum surrounding every circuit, just waiting to be used. E.g., if you retroreflect the passed Heaviside energy flow component, you can send it back across the circuit's surface charges again and catch some more of it.
Do it iteratively lots of times -- as in intensely scattering optically active media -- and you will have asymmetrical self-regauging and what has been called "lasing without population inversion". Or just resonate an intercepting charge -- as per Letokhov and Bohren -- and it will sweep out a greater geometrical reaction cross section and collect additional energy from the Heaviside component (18 times as much more energy as an identical but static particle collects).
Letokhov has been publishing in all sorts of journals on this subject since 1957. In an article in Contemporary Physics he has freely called such excess energy collection and emission a process for a "Maxwell's demon" -- in other words, a special kind of negative resistor.
The bottom line is that true overunity systems and negative resistors have been built and demonstrated by several inventors and scientists such as Bedini, Golden, Nelson, Watson, Letokhov, Bohren, Chung, Kron, Sweet, etc.
It is scientifically unacceptable when the scientific community still implicitly proclaims the "source charge" as ostensibly creating all that enormous energy in its fields and potentials reaching across the universe in all directions.
In short, classical EM excludes the interaction of the vacuum in its power system theory, and implies that the "source charge" freely creates all that field energy and potential energy reaching across the universe in all directions, and creates it right out of nothing. Yet this same community habitually confronts the serious open dissipative system EM researcher with the label of being a "perpetual motion machine nut".
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A final word on entropy. Simply put, entropy refers to increasing energy disorder, where disorder is the effect. But the back-reaction of the effect upon the cause, omitted from mechanics and electrodynamics but present in general relativity, has not been taken into account. That principle means that each time there is a disordering of energy, there is simultaneously a reordering of an equal amount of energy.
Entropy and negentropy occur as twins, simply from the occurrence of the potential as a harmonic set of bidirectional phase conjugate pairs of longitudinal EM waves. We usually apply one set of those waves (the forward time set) and ignore the second set (the time-reversed set or phase conjugate set).
In every experiment where an incoming EM wave from space affects a receiving wire antenna, not only do the Drude electrons recoil, but also the positive nuclei recoil with equal energy, though highly damped because of the enormous m/q ratio of the nuclei. Eerily, hundreds of thousands of scientists and engineers have been taught to measure the Drude electron recoil and state they are measuring the "incoming wave" disturbance.
Not so. They are measuring the effect of half of the interaction; the other half of the cause omitted by Maxwell interacted with the time-reversed nuclei, and produced the Newtonian third law recoil forces. Every scientist will acknowledge the accompanying recoil of the nuclei, then will mystically invoke a demon who stands in the wire, observes the disturbance of the electrons, and kicks the nuclei equally and oppositely.
A similar situation occurs in a wire transmitting antenna, where the recoiling nuclei also perturb the surrounding spacetime with equal energy as do the perturbed Drude electrons. Equal energy perturbation of ST means equal ST curvature perturbation. So two ST perturbation waves are launched simultaneously, not one.
One is a time-forward wave, and one is a time-reversed wave, paired together. Look at it this way. The vacuum is a giant potential, which means it can inherently be decomposed into Whittaker's bidirectional longitudinal EM wavepair sets. Any perturbation of the vacuum must a priori disturb those bidirectional waves, thereby producing bidirectional wavepair disturbances, not "plucked string" waves.
There are no taut physical strings in the vacuum! Maxwell omitted the time-reversed half of the vacuum disturbance, because the atom, nucleus, and electron had not even been discovered at the time, and because he assumed the taut string wave a priori. The reasoning was just that a single electrical fluid under tensile stress was perturbed.